Two Nine Nine Two at Fifteen

     The most dangerous aspect of weather is not any one violent or extreme phenomena. Certainly, wind, wind shear, and sudden gusts are well documented as the leading causes of weather-related accidents (AOPA, 2020). This is not a matter of opinion. But violent storms and unpredictable winds are not the most dangerous trick weather can play on the aviator. What is this dangerous phenomenon that everyone who takes to the skies must deal with, from the student to the 30 year veteran?

Not this, surprisingly.

     A search of all NTSB crash investigations shows that 57601 accidents occurred in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) while 4948 occurred in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) (NTSB, 2020). In 2018 there was 23 non-commercial fixed-wing accidents out of a total of 1033 accidents categorized as weather type (AOPA, 2020). Since 2009 there has not been more than 65 weather related accidents in the non-commercial fixed-wing category (AOPA, 2020). Most of these accidents are caused by flying from Visual Flight Rules (VFR) into IMC conditions (AOPA, 2020). Day VMC accidents make up nearly 40% of weather-related accidents, more than any other condition (AOPA, 2020).

     Why are these numbers not higher? There are many dangerous weather conditions which directly contribute to aviation accidents. Given that only 32 out of 1033 accidents in 2018 are directly weather related and nearly half start in VMC conditions leads to one conclusion (AOPA, 2020).

    The most dangerous weather condition is “a great day to fly.” A  sunny day, with light, consistent winds and unlimited visibility can cause a sense of security. If you have ever been a passenger on an airplane you probably know that a thunderstorm will wake you up. Generally, the extra threat of adverse weather increases awareness and attention, keeping the pilot and crew looking for weather related problems as well as other concerns. The pilot is far more cautious when maneuvering the airplane and tightens up in flight discipline.

    But on a sunny day, when there is not much to worry about it can be easy to become complacent. For anyone with a good amount of experience in something as complicated as flying an airplane, many of the sequences involved can become second nature. This coupled with a lowered awareness brought about by a nice day may lead to a pilot not noticing missing steps or problems with the aircraft. Adverse weather can also contribute to forcing a crew to slow down and consider more carefully risks involved.

Nall Report Figure View. AOPA. (2020, July 21). https://www.aopa.org/training-and-safety/air-safety-institute/accident-analysis/joseph-t-nall-report/nall-report-figure-view?category=all&year=2018&condition=all&report=true.

NTSB Aviation Accident Database & Synopses. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). https://www.ntsb.gov/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/index.aspx.

 

Ground Vs Sector

Ground Vs Sector

This blog post will compare and contrast the air traffic control position of Sector and Ground.

When a pilot is flying an IFR flight plan, he or she must be in contact with air traffic control for all phases of flight. At busier airports, these phases of flight can be broken down into a profile of Ground, Takeoff, Departure, En-route, Descent, Approach, and Landing (Fruedenrich, 2020). For all parts except En-route the airport will be the point of contact for communication. At smaller airports there may be one controller handling all parts of the plane’s movement in and around the airport (PHAK, 2016). At larger airports, individual controllers on different frequencies will talk to planes acting within their respective jurisdiction (PHAK, 2016).

Ground

An airplane at a gate, starting its engines, or taxiing will speak with the Ground controller (Montoya, 1999). The Ground controller’s job is to coordinate the movement of airplanes around the ramp and on and off taxiways and runways (Montoya, 1999). Once the airplane has reached the runway  communication is transferred to Tower control for takeoff clearance (Montoya, 1999).

                Area Controllers

Referred to as “Center,” these controllers talk to and coordinate with flying airplanes not interacting with an airport directly (Montoya, 1999). The U.S. is divided into twenty-one zones or centers (Fruedenrich, 2020). Air route traffic control centers (ARTCC) oversees all the traffic within its sector, including VFR traffic upon request (Fruedenrich, 2020).

Similarities

Ground and Centers are both good sources for weather. All phases of a flight profile require the pilot to transfer communication from one ATC type to another. With Centers, guard is passed from one center to the next until the descent. These centers are geographically separated from another. When Ground control passes guard to Departure it is likely that the Departure controller is sitting in the same room as the Ground controller. They may even be the same person on two different frequencies.

               

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2016) Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge 
        (PHAK). https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/

Freudenrich, C. (2020, July 30). How Air Traffic Control Works. HowStuffWorks Science. https://science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/air-traffic-control.htm.

Montoya, D. (1999, January 5). ATC Communications. AOPA. https://www.aopa.org/news-and-media/all-news/1999/january/flight-training-magazine/atc-communications.

 

Us

      A caveat: Before I begin, I would like to take a firm stance. I do not believe that humans are a "plague" or a "cancer" on the planet. If you hold a contrary viewpoint, I respect that and largely understand your point of view. I further request that the reader not infer that I view people as a pollutant or trash. I believe people are intrinsically valuable. Debating these points is not the scope of this blog. However, I do agree that humans, by their very nature, cause significant change and damage to the planet.

     I will be speaking primarily about the everyday operations of a major commercial airport, that is one that carries more than 50,000 movements per year (FAA, 2016; Home,n.d.). While airports may directly cause noise, light, emissions and many other types of pollution, the cities around them produce far more. (Moran et al., 2018) If a city has a air carrier hub its population growth may be up to 16 percentage points more than a city without a hub (Green, 2007). For example, New York, with its population of nearly 20 million people, has an annual carbon footprint per capita of roughly 250 metric tons per year. (Moran et al., 2018). While I could not find any numbers on the estimated carbon footprint of JFK International, I did find some numbers on DFW Airport, which is larger than JFK (Sawe, 2018). DFW produced, in 2019, 38,000 tones of emissions (Arnold, 2021).

     What does all these numbers mean? Let us consider a worst-case scenario. The presence of an airport can cause a city to grow by 16% as we have seen. This means that a city of 1,000,000 people (which would likely have a significant airport anyway but work with me) could add 160,000 people with the addition of a major commercial airport. If the carbon emissions are at the high end, like New York’s 250 metric tons, this equates to 40 million tons of extra carbon emissions. On the other hand the Dallas-Fort Worth population is nearly 6.5 million people and its population size no doubt supported by the presence of DFW International (Macrotrends, 2021). According to one article the typical resident of Fort Worth might produce 33 tons of emissions (Fort Worth, 2009). Even at this outdated and low estimate the 38,000 tons produce by the airport is matched by a mere 1152 citizens. If DFW were to disappear overnight I am confident in guessing the population of the area would quickly drop by far, far more than eleven hundred people.

I conclude, therefore, that the presence of a major commercial airport in any given city supports an excess of population who’s added carbon emissions outweighs the airport’s emissions by a factor of nearly 1,000.

 

Arnold, K. (2021, January 2). DFW Airport Wants to Cut Emissions to Zero by 2030, but Can It Do It? And What Does That Mean? https://www.dallasnews.com/business/airlines/2021/01/02/dfw-airport-wants-to-cut-emissions-to-zero-by-2030-but-can-it-do-it-and-what-does-that-mean/.

Dallas-Fort Worth Metro Area Population 1950-2021. MacroTrends. (2021). https://www.macrotrends.net/cities/22966/dallas-fort-worth/population.

FAA. (2016). Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. U.S. Department of Transportation. https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/.

Fort Worth Star-Telegram. (2009, September 3). Q&A: The carbon footprint. Fort Worth Star-Telegram. https://www.star-telegram.com/latest-news/article3822164.html.

Green, R. K. (2007). Airports and Economic Development. Real Estate Economics, 35(1), 91-112.

http://ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/login?url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/scholarly-journals/airports-economic-development/docview/211166609/se-2?accountid=27203

Home. (n.d.) Law Insider. https://www.lawinsider.com/dictionary/major-airport#:~:text=major%20airport%20means%20a%20civil%20airport%20which%20has,light%20aircraft.%20Sample%201%20Based%20on%201%20documents.

Sawe, B. E. (2018, November 30). The Largest Airports in the World. WorldAtlas. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-10-largest-airports-by-size.html#:~:text=The%20World's%2015%20Largest%20Airports%20By%20Size%20,%20%205,383%20%2011%20more%20rows.

The Rules are Written in Blood.

     In 1977 two Boeing 747's collided on a runway in the Tenerife killing 583 people (Driefus, 1978). The official report found that the pilot-in-charge overrode his Engineer's concerns and failed to change his actions when presented with new information, significantly contributed to the accident. (Driefus, 1978).

     In 1979, as a response to this, NASA created the workshop Resource Management on the Flightdeck a predecessor to Crew Resource Management (CRM) (Helmreich, 2002). Over the years several companies took on CRM for themselves and implemented it (Helmreich, 2002).  

What is CRM?

     Crew Resource Management is the use of resources to improve safety and performance while avoiding  errors (Diehl, 2013). One of the most important factors of CRM is the emphasis on teamwork and acknowledgement that even the most senior and experienced people can make mistakes. This calls for assertiveness on the part of everyone on the crew, but it should be encouraged in newer, younger members who may feel they have not "earned" the right to speak up. 

     A second factor is the clear communications and standards of language. This was clearly demonstrated in the Tenerife accident when the controller told one of the pilots to turn onto the third runway, this was a matter of counting and not labelling the runway (Driefus, 1978). 

Effects of CRM

     In 1990 the FAA required that air carriers integrate CRM into their crew training (Helmreich, 2002). However carriers where afforded flexibility in the design of their program (Helmreich, 2002).

    The overall results and affects of CRM are inconclusive (Helmreich, 2002). It is difficult to quantify the effectiveness of CRM as not all incidents are reported and more importantly incidents which did not result in an error are reported even less (Helmreich, 2002). But it does still influence the way we fly. 

    However, CRM is now constantly evolving and even accepting that error is inevitable (Helmreich, 2002). The aviation industry both at the federal level and the corporate level continues to examine the current standards and reevaluate as new information and new incidents occur. This idea of constantly reevaluating and watching for errors is at the heart of CRM. 

Word count: 353

Diehl, Alan (2013) "Air Safety Investigators: Using Science to Save Lives-One Crash at a Time."

          http://www.prweb.com/releases/DrAlanDiehl/AirSafetyInvestigators/prweb10735591.htm

Dreifus, E. Douglas (1978). Collision Aeronaves Boeing 747 PH-BUF DE K.L.M. Y Boeing 747 N 736            Pa de Panam En Los Rodeos (Tenerife) El 27 De Marzo De 1.977. http://www.project-  

          tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf

Helmreich, Robert L., Merritt, Ashleigh C., Wilhelm, John A. (2002). The Evolution of Crew Resource            Management Training in Commercial Aviation. 

          https://web.archive.org/web/20130306162247/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/

          group/HelmreichLAB/publications/pubfiles/Pub235.pdf

Drop! Drop! Drop!

 Human Factors: The most authoritative definition ever devised.

     Human factors are those decisions and actions, either voluntary or involuntary, by humans which affect in some capacity the activity being performed. (PHAK, 2016). The most important term here is human at five letters long it is a rather modest word. But it is nearly undefinable, and philosophers have been pursuing this question for millennia (Burns, 2015). Why muddle things up? Because we need to be clear that humans muddle things up quickly. Any resource management or safety system in place must acknowledge this or it is no good. Experience and training are some of the most effective ways to overcome and mitigate negative human factors.

Drops

     The United State Coast Guard uses C-130's as a long range search and rescue platform. A C-130 crew may be called to drop supplies to a vessel in distress. We will be focusing on the drop portion of the rescue. It is important to note however, that from the start of the duty day until the crew gets in their respective cars to go home, teamwork is built into every step of the rescue evolution.

     Once the boat has been located and communications have been established the crew decides what to drop. The Dropmaster, with the assistance of the Basic Aircrewman, arranges the gear on the ramp in the tail of the airplane. The pilots work together to establish a best approach. The Engineer is monitoring the instruments and especially the airspeed and altitude as a backup. The Navigator monitors the position of the airplane, the distressed vessel and any surrounding terrain. The Radio keeps contact with both the Operations center and the vessel.

     When lining up for the drop the Navigator inputs an approach angle into the flight computer as instructed by the pilot. As the the monitoring pilot reads the checklist the flying pilot stays in constant communication with the Dropmaster who opens the ramp and tail. The Radio instructs the boat how to position itself to best receive the drop and when the plane is about to drop.

     As the plane approaches the drop point no one except the pilot talks unless there is a need to abort, a call which any crewmember can make if there is a a problem. The Engineer and the monitoring pilot keeps a sharp eye on the altitude and airspeed, as the margin for error is very small and pilot flying has many things to keep track of. At the pilot's command the Dropmaster and the Basic Aircrew push the rescue supplies out the back of the airplane to the waiting vessel. Then the pilot immediately begins to ascend and turn to assess the drop. The Radio continues to talk to the boat to ensure they received the drop.

Airdrop of 2 pump cans.

      The most dangerous variation of this drop is the message block, a bag of sand attached to a streamer with a message inside. This is used in extreme cases when no other form of communication can be made with a vessel. This drop is done at an altitude of 50 feet which is less than half of the C-130's 132 ft. wingspan. (Lockheed, 2021) At this height ground effect becomes a major factor (PHAK, 2016). Flying this at night exponentially increases the risk involved. The slightest error can lead to a serious mishap.

Message Block Delivery Training

                The most effective solution to ensuring success is constant practice. Coast Guard Air Stations fly training missions every day. By following checklists, actively training and maintaining members, and constantly communicating before, during, and after the flights crews can anticipate problems, hone abilities, and ensure the mission is completed safely.

Burns, S. C. (2015). What does it mean to be human? How third graders' response to a         philosophical question changes through process drama (Order No. 3682297). Available from ProQuest One Academic. (1657428434). http://ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/login      url=https://www-proquest-com.ezproxy.libproxy.db.erau.edu/dissertations-theses/what-does-mean-be-human-how-third-graders/docview/1657428434/se-2?accountid=27203

C-130J Super Hercules Program Status and Fast Facts. Lockheedmartin.com. 
(2021, January). https://www.lockheedmartin.com/content/dam/lockheed-martin/aero/documents/C-130FastFacts/January2021C-130JFastFacts.pdf.

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical      Knowledge (PHAK).                Retrieved https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/pak/

Word Count: 614
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). (2016). Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (PHAK). Retrieved https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/P

Hiding in Plane Sight

       No I am not going to apologize for that cheap pun.

     Currently all passengers must wear masks both on airplanes and in airports. Positively identifying every passenger is at the heart of aviation security. Without effective positive identification it is fairly easy for a person to steal and use the identity of a someone else to board a plane. This way a person with a concerning or criminal background faces fewer obstacles to overcome. Every gap in this layer of security broadens the number of people who might try to pass airport security for nefarious purposes. Masks present a small chink in the positive identification armor.

      Currently, the only place a person must remove their mask for identification is the entry to security. While this single identity checkpoint has always been the norm, a single, tired, agent on a busy day might make a mistake or not examine a face closely enough. A person wearing a mask at an airport used to attract a bit more scrutiny from employees, now that it is the norm, this small indicator is now gone. 

     Not requiring masks (or requiring clear masks, gross) is the most obvious solution to this problem. However, this is unlikely to happen any time soon. But even without masks there is still the problem that positive identification is only done at one point by one person. Boarding the airplane must be a second point of identification. When dealing with any sort of checks or security relying on a human factor, two person integrity is necessary.

Word Count: 256

(n.d.). Retrieved December 29, 2020, from https://www.tsa.gov/

Security Guidelines for General Aviation Airport Operators and Users. 
     (2017, July). Retrieved December 29, 2020, from      
     https://www.tsa.gov/sites/default/files/2017_ga_security_guidelines.pdf

Blog 3.2 Air Data

 The Lockheed C-130 Hercules, uses a pitot static system to collect air data. The information from this system is used to determine barometric altitude, airspeed, and vertical speed. The pitot tubes measure ram air from the relative wind and the static ports measure the ambient air pressure.

Pitot tubes with and without covers. Covers prevent damage and FOD from entering on the ground.

Static port for measuring ambient air pressure.

     There are two separate, identical, and redundant systems, each one feeds to its own air data computer and then to the pilot or the co-pilot. On the C-130 J model the first indication of a problem with any system is usually the Alerts, Cautions, and Warning System (ACAWS) announcement. This may include an audible signal as well as a digital phrase stating the problem on one of the pilot's screens.

ACAWS messages area.

      One problem which may arise is an airspeed split. When the pilot and co-pilot's tachometers show different air speeds. This can be cause by a blockage of a pitot tube, usually by ice, a malfunction in the air data computer, or a leak in the air data system among other potential problems.

A Pitot-Static tube similar to the C-130. Note the static holes on the tube itself.

     Without accurate air data the pilots will be unable to make safe decisions regarding stall speeds, landing and takeoff speeds and overspeed limits for various airplane configurations. Further it is unsafe to assume that the broken system is the slow system as many aircraft systems, especially the C-130 are computer controlled and so the cause of the problem may not be deduced in flight.

Druck brand test set. This machine produces pressure and vacuum to simulate flight.

    If this occurs in flight it is best to use the "slower" altimeter for all slow speed and stall speed limits and to use the "faster" altimeter for all overspeed limits. Once on the ground the issue will need to be immediately addressed. This involves setting up an air data test set hooked up to the pitot tubes and static ports and simulates an aircraft in flight. Using this data the system the maintainers can then troubleshoot to determine the faulty component.

This fitting goes over the pitot tube. Hoses run from it to the test set.

Word Count: 385

ERAUSpecialVFR. (2017, August 01). Pitot-Static Instruments. Retrieved December 19, 2020, from                    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kdFGbUouE_4

United States, Coast Guard. (n.d.). Flight Manual C-130 J USCG Series Aircraft.